WINMX Assorted Textfiles/Ebooks.tar/Text - Philosophy - Plato - The Seventh Letter (TXT).zip/Plato - The Seventh Letter.txt

Text File | 1999-10-22 | 77KB | 2,281 lines

                                     360 BC

                               THE SEVENTH LETTER

                                    by Plato

                            translated by J. Harward



  PLATO TO THE RELATIVES AND FRIENDS OF DION. WELFARE.



  You write to me that I must consider your views the same as those of

Dion, and you urge me to aid your cause so far as I can in word and

deed. My answer is that, if you have the same opinion and desire as he

had, I consent to aid your cause; but if not, I shall think more

than once about it. Now what his purpose and desire was, I can

inform you from no mere conjecture but from positive knowledge. For

when I made my first visit to Sicily, being then about forty years

old, Dion was of the same age as Hipparinos is now, and the opinion

which he then formed was that which he always retained, I mean the

belief that the Syracusans ought to be free and governed by the best

laws. So it is no matter for surprise if some God should make

Hipparinos adopt the same opinion as Dion about forms of government.

But it is well worth while that you should all, old as well as

young, hear the way in which this opinion was formed, and I will

attempt to give you an account of it from the beginning. For the

present is a suitable opportunity.

  In my youth I went through the same experience as many other men.

I fancied that if, early in life, I became my own master, I should

at once embark on a political career. And I found myself confronted

with the following occurrences in the public affairs of my own city.

The existing constitution being generally condemned, a revolution took

place, and fifty-one men came to the front as rulers of the

revolutionary government, namely eleven in the city and ten in the

Peiraeus-each of these bodies being in charge of the market and

municipal matters-while thirty were appointed rulers with full

powers over public affairs as a whole. Some of these were relatives

and acquaintances of mine, and they at once invited me to share in

their doings, as something to which I had a claim. The effect on me

was not surprising in the case of a young man. I considered that

they would, of course, so manage the State as to bring men out of a

bad way of life into a good one. So I watched them very closely to see

what they would do.

  And seeing, as I did, that in quite a short time they made the

former government seem by comparison something precious as gold-for

among other things they tried to send a friend of mine, the aged

Socrates, whom I should scarcely scruple to describe as the most

upright man of that day, with some other persons to carry off one of

the citizens by force to execution, in order that, whether he wished

it, or not, he might share the guilt of their conduct; but he would

not obey them, risking all consequences in preference to becoming a

partner in their iniquitous deeds-seeing all these things and others

of the same kind on a considerable scale, I disapproved of their

proceedings, and withdrew from any connection with the abuses of the

time.

  Not long after that a revolution terminated the power of the

thirty and the form of government as it then was. And once more,

though with more hesitation, I began to be moved by the desire to take

part in public and political affairs. Well, even in the new

government, unsettled as it was, events occurred which one would

naturally view with disapproval; and it was not surprising that in a

period of revolution excessive penalties were inflicted by some

persons on political opponents, though those who had returned from

exile at that time showed very considerable forbearance. But once more

it happened that some of those in power brought my friend Socrates,

whom I have mentioned, to trial before a court of law, laying a most

iniquitous charge against him and one most inappropriate in his

case: for it was on a charge of impiety that some of them prosecuted

and others condemned and executed the very man who would not

participate in the iniquitous arrest of one of the friends of the

party then in exile, at the time when they themselves were in exile

and misfortune.

  As I observed these incidents and the men engaged in public affairs,

the laws too and the customs, the more closely I examined them and the

farther I advanced in life, the more difficult it seemed to me to

handle public affairs aright. For it was not possible to be active

in politics without friends and trustworthy supporters; and to find

these ready to my hand was not an easy matter, since public affairs at

Athens were not carried on in accordance with the manners and

practices of our fathers; nor was there any ready method by which I

could make new friends. The laws too, written and unwritten, were

being altered for the worse, and the evil was growing with startling

rapidity. The result was that, though at first I had been full of a

strong impulse towards political life, as I looked at the course of

affairs and saw them being swept in all directions by contending

currents, my head finally began to swim; and, though I did not stop

looking to see if there was any likelihood of improvement in these

symptoms and in the general course of public life, I postponed

action till a suitable opportunity should arise. Finally, it became

clear to me, with regard to all existing cornmunities, that they

were one and all misgoverned. For their laws have got into a state

that is almost incurable, except by some extraordinary reform with

good luck to support it. And I was forced to say, when praising true

philosophy that it is by this that men are enabled to see what justice

in public and private life really is. Therefore, I said, there will be

no cessation of evils for the sons of men, till either those who are

pursuing a right and true philosophy receive sovereign power in the

States, or those in power in the States by some dispensation of

providence become true philosophers.

  With these thoughts in my mind I came to Italy and Sicily on my

first visit. My first impressions on arrival were those of strong

disapproval-disapproval of the kind of life which was there called the

life of happiness, stuffed full as it was with the banquets of the

Italian Greeks and Syracusans, who ate to repletion twice every day,

and were never without a partner for the night; and disapproval of the

habits which this manner of life produces. For with these habits

formed early in life, no man under heaven could possibly attain to

wisdom-human nature is not capable of such an extraordinary

combination. Temperance also is out of the question for such a man;

and the same applies to virtue generally. No city could remain in a

state of tranquillity under any laws whatsoever, when men think it

right to squander all their property in extravagant, and consider it a

duty to be idle in everything else except eating and drinking and

the laborious prosecution of debauchery. It follows necessarily that

the constitutions of such cities must be constantly changing,

tyrannies, oligarchies and democracies succeeding one another, while

those who hold the power cannot so much as endure the name of any form

of government which maintains justice and equality of rights.

  With a mind full of these thoughts, on the top of my previous

convictions, I crossed over to Syracuse-led there perhaps by

chance-but it really looks as if some higher power was even then

planning to lay a foundation for all that has now come to pass with

regard to Dion and Syracuse-and for further troubles too, I fear,

unless you listen to the advice which is now for the second time

offered by me. What do I mean by saying that my arrival in Sicily at

that movement proved to be the foundation on which all the sequel

rests? I was brought into close intercourse with Dion who was then a

young man, and explained to him my views as to the ideals at which men

should aim, advising him to carry them out in practice. In doing

this I seem to have been unaware that I was, in a fashion, without

knowing it, contriving the overthrow of the tyranny which;

subsequently took place. For Dion, who rapidly assimilated my teaching

as he did all forms of knowledge, listened to me with an eagerness

which I had never seen equalled in any young man, and resolved to live

for the future in a better way than the majority of Italian and

Sicilian Greeks, having set his affection on virtue in preference to

pleasure and self-indulgence. The result was that until the death of

Dionysios he lived in a way which rendered him somewhat unpopular

among those whose manner of life was that which is usual in the courts

of despots.

  After that event he came to the conclusion that this conviction,

which he himself had gained under the influence of good teaching,

was not likely to be confined to himself. Indeed, he saw it being

actually implanted in other minds-not many perhaps, but certainly in

some; and he thought that with the aid of the Gods, Dionysios might

perhaps become one of these, and that, if such a thing did come to

pass, the result would be a life of unspeakable happiness both for

himself and for the rest of the Syracusans. Further, he thought it

essential that I should come to Syracuse by all manner of means and

with the utmost possible speed to be his partner in these plans,

remembering in his own case how readily intercourse with me had

produced in him a longing for the noblest and best life. And if it

should produce a similar effect on Dionysios, as his aim was that it

should, he had great hope that, without bloodshed, loss of life, and

those disastrous events which have now taken place, he would be able

to introduce the true life of happiness throughout the whole

territory.

  Holding these sound views, Dion persuaded Dionysios to send for

me; he also wrote himself entreating me to come by all manner of means

and with the utmost possible speed, before certain other persons

coming in contact with Dionysios should turn him aside into some way

of life other than the best. What he said, though perhaps it is rather

long to repeat, was as follows: "What opportunities," he said,

"shall we wait for, greater than those now offered to us by

Providence?" And he described the Syracusan empire in Italy and

Sicily, his own influential position in it, and the youth of Dionysios

and how strongly his desire was directed towards philosophy and

education. His own nephews and relatives, he said, would be readily

attracted towards the principles and manner of life described by me,

and would be most influential in attracting Dionysios in the same

direction, so that, now if ever, we should see the accomplishment of

every hope that the same persons might actually become both

philosophers and the rulers of great States. These were the appeals

addressed to me and much more to the same effect.

  My own opinion, so far as the young men were concerned, and the

probable line which their conduct would take, was full of

apprehension-for young men are quick in forming desires, which often

take directions conflicting with one another. But I knew that the

character of Dion's mind was naturally a stable one and had also the

advantage of somewhat advanced years.

  Therefore, I pondered the matter and was in two minds as to

whether I ought to listen to entreaties and go, or how I ought to act;

and finally the scale turned in favour of the view that, if ever

anyone was to try to carry out in practice my ideas about laws and

constitutions, now was the time for making the attempt; for if only

I could fully convince one man, I should have secured thereby the

accomplishment of all good things.

  With these views and thus nerved to the task, I sailed from home, in

the spirit which some imagined, but principally through a feeling of

shame with regard to myself, lest I might some day appear to myself

wholly and solely a mere man of words, one who would never of his

own will lay his hand to any act. Also there was reason to think

that I should be betraying first and foremost my friendship and

comradeship with Dion, who in very truth was in a position of

considerable danger. If therefore anything should happen to him, or if

he were banished by Dionysios and his other enemies and coming to us

as exile addressed this question to me: "Plato, I have come to you

as a fugitive, not for want of hoplites, nor because I had no

cavalry for defence against my enemies, but for want of words and

power of persuasion, which I knew to be a special gift of yours,

enabling you to lead young men into the path of goodness and

justice, and to establish in every case relations of friendship and

comradeship among them. It is for the want of this assistance on

your part that I have left Syracuse and am here now. And the

disgrace attaching to your treatment of me is a small matter. But

philosophy-whose praises you are always singing, while you say she

is held in dishonour by the rest of mankind-must we not say that

philosophy along with me has now been betrayed, so far as your

action was concerned? Had I been living at Megara, you would certainly

have come to give me your aid towards the objects for which I asked

it; or you would have thought yourself the most contemptible of

mankind. But as it is, do you think that you will escape the

reputation of cowardice by making excuses about the distance of the

journey, the length of the sea voyage, and the amount of labour

involved? Far from it." To reproaches of this kind what creditable

reply could I have made? Surely none.

  I took my departure, therefore, acting, so far as a man can act,

in obedience to reason and justice, and for these reasons leaving my

own occupations, which were certainly not discreditable ones, to put

myself under a tyranny which did not seem likely to harmonise with

my teaching or with myself. By my departure I secured my own freedom

from the displeasure of Zeus Xenios, and made myself clear of any

charge on the part of philosophy, which would have been exposed to

detraction, if any disgrace had come upon me for faint-heartedness and

cowardice.

  On my arrival, to cut a long story short, I found the court of

Dionysios full of intrigues and of attempts to create in the sovereign

ill-feeling against Dion. I combated these as far as I could, but with

very little success; and in the fourth month or thereabouts,

charging Dion with conspiracy to seize the throne, Dionysios put him

on board a small boat and expelled him from Syracuse with ignominy.

All of us who were Dion's friends were afraid that he might take

vengeance on one or other of us as an accomplice in Dion's conspiracy.

With regard to me, there was even a rumour current in Syracuse that

I had been put to death by Dionysios as the cause of all that had

occurred. Perceiving that we were all in this state of mind and

apprehending that our fears might lead to some serious consequence, he

now tried to win all of us over by kindness: me in particular he

encouraged, bidding me be of good cheer and entreating me on all

grounds to remain. For my flight from him was not likely to redound to

his credit, but my staying might do so. Therefore, he made a great

pretence of entreating me. And we know that the entreaties of

sovereigns are mixed with compulsion. So to secure his object he

proceeded to render my departure impossible, bringing me into the

acropolis, and establishing me in quarters from which not a single

ship's captain would have taken me away against the will of Dionysios,

nor indeed without a special messenger sent by him to order my

removal. Nor was there a single merchant, or a single official in

charge of points of departure from the country, who would have allowed

me to depart unaccompanied, and would not have promptly seized me

and taken me back to Dionysios, especially since a statement had now

been circulated contradicting the previous rumours and giving out that

Dionysios was becoming extraordinarily attached to Plato. What were

the facts about this attachment? I must tell the truth. As time went

on, and as intercourse made him acquainted with my disposition and

character, he did become more and more attached to me, and wished me

to praise him more than I praised Dion, and to look upon him as more

specially my friend than Dion, and he was extraordinarily eager

about this sort of thing. But when confronted with the one way in

which this might have been done, if it was to be done at all, he

shrank from coming into close and intimate relations with me as a

pupil and listener to my discourses on philosophy, fearing the

danger suggested by mischief-makers, that he might be ensnared, and so

Dion would prove to have accomplished all his object. I endured all

this patiently, retaining the purpose with which I had come and the

hope that he might come to desire the philosophic life. But his

resistance prevailed against me.

  The time of my first visit to Sicily and my stay there was taken

up with all these incidents. On a later occasion I left home and again

came on an urgent summons from Dionysios. But before giving the

motives and particulars of my conduct then and showing how suitable

and right it was, I must first, in order that I may not treat as the

main point what is only a side issue, give you my advice as to what

your acts should be in the present position of affairs; afterwards, to

satisfy those who put the question why I came a second time, I will

deal fully with the facts about my second visit; what I have now to

say is this.

  He who advises a sick man, whose manner of life is prejudicial to

health, is clearly bound first of all to change his patient's manner

of life, and if the patient is willing to obey him, he may go on to

give him other advice. But if he is not willing, I shall consider

one who declines to advise such a patient to be a man and a physician,

and one who gives in to him to be unmanly and unprofessional. In the

same way with regard to a State, whether it be under a single ruler or

more than one, if, while the government is being carried on

methodically and in a right course, it asks advice about any details

of policy, it is the part of a wise man to advise such people. But

when men are travelling altogether outside the path of right

government and flatly refuse to move in the right path, and start by

giving notice to their adviser that he must leave the government alone

and make no change in it under penalty of death-if such men should

order their counsellors to pander to their wishes and desires and to

advise them in what way their object may most readily and easily be

once for all accomplished, I should consider as unmanly one who

accepts the duty of giving such forms of advice, and one who refuses

it to be a true man.

  Holding these views, whenever anyone consults me about any of the

weightiest matters affecting his own life, as, for instance, the

acquisition of property or the proper treatment of body or mind, if it

seems to me that his daily life rests on any system, or if he seems

likely to listen to advice about the things on which he consults me, I

advise him with readiness, and do not content myself with giving him a

merely perfunctory answer. But if a man does not consult me at all, or

evidently does not intend to follow my advice, I do not take the

initiative in advising such a man, and will not use compulsion to him,

even if he be my own son. I would advise a slave under such

circumstances, and would use compulsion to him if he were unwilling.

To a father or mother I do not think that piety allows one to offer

compulsion, unless they are suffering from an attack of insanity;

and if they are following any regular habits of life which please them

but do not please me, I would not offend them by offering useless,

advice, nor would I flatter them or truckle to them, providing them

with the means of satisfying desires which I myself would sooner die

than cherish. The wise man should go through life with the same

attitude of mind towards his country. If she should appear to him to

be following a policy which is not a good one, he should say so,

provided that his words are not likely either to fall on deaf ears

or to lead to the loss of his own life. But force against his native

land he should not use in order to bring about a change of

constitution, when it is not possible for the best constitution to

be introduced without driving men into exile or putting them to death;

he should keep quiet and offer up prayers for his own welfare and

for that of his country.

  These are the principles in accordance with which I should advise

you, as also, jointly with Dion, I advised Dionysios, bidding him in

the first place to live his daily life in a way that would make him as

far as possible master of himself and able to gain faithful friends

and supporters, in order that he might not have the same experience as

his father. For his father, having taken under his rule many great

cities of Sicily which had been utterly destroyed by the barbarians,

was not able to found them afresh and to establish in them trustworthy

governments carried on by his own supporters, either by men who had no

ties of blood with him, or by his brothers whom he had brought up when

they were younger, and had raised from humble station to high office

and from poverty to immense wealth. Not one of these was he able to

work upon by persuasion, instruction, services and ties of kindred, so

as to make him a partner in his rule; and he showed himself inferior

to Darius with a sevenfold inferiority. For Darius did not put his

trust in brothers or in men whom he had brought up, but only in his

confederates in the overthrow of the Mede and Eunuch; and to these

he assigned portions of his empire, seven in number, each of them

greater than all Sicily; and they were faithful to him and did not

attack either him or one another. Thus he showed a pattern of what the

good lawgiver and king ought to be; for he drew up laws by which he

has secured the Persian empire in safety down to the present time.

  Again, to give another instance, the Athenians took under their rule

very many cities not founded by themselves, which had been hard hit by

the barbarians but were still in existence, and maintained their

rule over these for seventy years, because they had in each them men

whom they could trust. But Dionysios, who had gathered the whole of

Sicily into a single city, and was so clever that he trusted no one,

only secured his own safety with great difficulty. For he was badly

off for trustworthy friends; and there is no surer criterion of virtue

and vice than this, whether a man is or is not destitute of such

friends.

  This, then, was the advice which Dion and I gave to Dionysios,

since, owing to bringing up which he had received from his father,

he had had no advantages in the way of education or of suitable

lessons, in the first place...; and, in the second place, that,

after starting in this way, he should make friends of others among his

connections who were of the same age and were in sympathy with his

pursuit of virtue, but above all that he should be in harmony with

himself; for this it was of which he was remarkably in need. This we

did not say in plain words, for that would not have been safe; but

in covert language we maintained that every man in this way would save

both himself and those whom he was leading, and if he did not follow

this path, he would do just the opposite of this. And after proceeding

on the course which we described, and making himself a wise and

temperate man, if he were then to found again the cities of Sicily

which had been laid waste, and bind them together by laws and

constitutions, so as to be loyal to him and to one another in their

resistance to the attacks of the barbarians, he would, we told him,

make his father's empire not merely double what it was but many

times greater. For, if these things were done, his way would be

clear to a more complete subjugation of the Carthaginians than that

which befell them in Gelon's time, whereas in our own day his father

had followed the opposite course of levying attribute for the

barbarians. This was the language and these the exhortations given

by us, the conspirators against Dionysios according to the charges

circulated from various sources-charges which, prevailing as they

did with Dionysios, caused the expulsion of Dion and reduced me to a

state of apprehension. But when-to summarise great events which

happened in no great time-Dion returned from the Peloponnese and

Athens, his advice to Dionysios took the form of action.

  To proceed-when Dion had twice over delivered the city and

restored it to the citizens, the Syracusans went through the same

changes of feeling towards him as Dionysios had gone through, when

Dion attempted first to educate him and train him to be a sovereign

worthy of supreme power and, when that was done, to be his coadjutor

in all the details of his career. Dionysios listened to those who

circulated slanders to the effect that Dion was aiming at the

tyranny in all the steps which he took at that time his intention

being that Dionysios, when his mind had fallen under the spell of

culture, should neglect the government and leave it in his hands,

and that he should then appropriate it for himself and treacherously

depose Dionysios. These slanders were victorious on that occasion;

they were so once more when circulated among the Syracusans, winning a

victory which took an extraordinary course and proved disgraceful to

its authors. The story of what then took place is one which deserves

careful attention on the part of those who are inviting me to deal

with the present situation.

  I, an Athenian and friend of Dion, came as his ally to the court

of Dionysios, in order that I might create good will in place of a

state war; in my conflict with the authors of these slanders I was

worsted. When Dionysios tried to persuade me by offers of honours

and wealth to attach myself to him, and with a view to giving a decent

colour to Dion's expulsion a witness and friend on his side, he failed

completely in his attempt. Later on, when Dion returned from exile, he

took with him from Athens two brothers, who had been his friends,

not from community in philosophic study, but with the ordinary

companionship common among most friends, which they form as the result

of relations of hospitality and the intercourse which occurs when

one man initiates the other in the mysteries. It was from this kind of

intercourse and from services connected with his return that these two

helpers in his restoration became his companions. Having come to

Sicily, when they perceived that Dion had been misrepresented to the

Sicilian Greeks, whom he had liberated, as one that plotted to

become monarch, they not only betrayed their companion and friend, but

shared personally in the guilt of his murder, standing by his

murderers as supporters with weapons in their hands. The guilt and

impiety of their conduct I neither excuse nor do I dwell upon it.

For many others make it their business to harp upon it, and will

make it their business in the future. But I do take exception to the

statement that, because they were Athenians, they have brought shame

upon this city. For I say that he too is an Athenian who refused to

betray this same Dion, when he had the offer of riches and many

other honours. For his was no common or vulgar friendship, but

rested on community in liberal education, and this is the one thing in

which a wise man will put his trust, far more than in ties of personal

and bodily kinship. So the two murderers of Dion were not of

sufficient importance to be causes of disgrace to this city, as though

they had been men of any note.

  All this has been said with a view to counselling the friends and

family of Dion. And in addition to this I give for the third time to

you the same advice and counsel which I have given twice before to

others-not to enslave Sicily or any other State to despots-this my

counsel but-to put it under the rule of laws-for the other course is

better neither for the enslavers nor for the enslaved, for themselves,

their children's children and descendants; the attempt is in every way

fraught with disaster. It is only small and mean natures that are bent

upon seizing such gains for themselves, natures that know nothing of

goodness and justice, divine as well as human, in this life and in the

next.

  These are the lessons which I tried to teach, first to Dion,

secondly to Dionysios, and now for the third time to you. Do you

obey me thinking of Zeus the Preserver, the patron of third

ventures, and looking at the lot of Dionysios and Dion, of whom the

one who disobeyed me is living in dishonour, while he who obeyed me

has died honourably. For the one thing which is wholly right and noble

is to strive for that which is most honourable for a man's self and

for his country, and to face the consequences whatever they may be.

For none of us can escape death, nor, if a man could do so, would

it, as the vulgar suppose, make him happy. For nothing evil or good,

which is worth mentioning at all, belongs to things soulless; but good

or evil will be the portion of every soul, either while attached to

the body or when separated from it.

  And we should in very truth always believe those ancient and

sacred teachings, which declare that the soul is immortal, that it has

judges, and suffers the greatest penalties when it has been

separated from the body. Therefore also we should consider it a lesser

evil to suffer great wrongs and outrages than to do them. The covetous

man, impoverished as he is in the soul, turns a deaf ear to this

teaching; or if he hears it, he laughs it to scorn with fancied

superiority, and shamelessly snatches for himself from every source

whatever his bestial fancy supposes will provide for him the means

of eating or drinking or glutting himself with that slavish and

gross pleasure which is falsely called after the goddess of love. He

is blind and cannot see in those acts of plunder which are accompanied

by impiety what heinous guilt is attached to each wrongful deed, and

that the offender must drag with him the burden of this impiety

while he moves about on earth, and when he has travelled beneath the

earth on a journey which has every circumstance of shame and misery.

  It was by urging these and other like truths that I convinced

Dion, and it is I who have the best right to be angered with his

murderers in much the same way as I have with Dionysios. For both they

and he have done the greatest injury to me, and I might almost say

to all mankind, they by slaying the man that was willing to act

righteously, and he by refusing to act righteously during the whole of

his rule, when he held supreme power, in which rule if philosophy

and power had really met together, it would have sent forth a light to

all men, Greeks and barbarians, establishing fully for all the true

belief that there can be no happiness either for the community or

for the individual man, unless he passes his life under the rule of

righteousness with the guidance of wisdom, either possessing these

virtues in himself, or living under the rule of godly men and having

received a right training and education in morals. These were the aims

which Dionysios injured, and for me everything else is a trifling

injury compared with this.

  The murderer of Dion has, without knowing it, done the same as

Dionysios. For as regards Dion, I know right well, so far as it is

possible for a man to say anything positively about other men, that,

if he had got the supreme power, he would never have turned his mind

to any other form of rule, but that, dealing first with Syracuse,

his own native land, when he had made an end of her slavery, clothed

her in bright apparel, and given her the garb of freedom, he would

then by every means in his power have ordered aright the lives of

his fellow-citizens by suitable and excellent laws; and the thing next

in order, which he would have set his heart to accomplish, was to

found again all the States of Sicily and make them free from the

barbarians, driving out some and subduing others, an easier task for

him than it was for Hiero. If these things had been accomplished by

a man who was just and brave and temperate and a philosopher, the same

belief with regard to virtue would have been established among the

majority which, if Dionysios had been won over, would have been

established, I might almost say, among all mankind and would have

given them salvation. But now some higher power or avenging fiend

has fallen upon them, inspiring them with lawlessness, godlessness and

acts of recklessness issuing from ignorance, the seed from which all

evils for all mankind take root and grow and will in future bear the

bitterest harvest for those who brought them into being. This

ignorance it was which in that second venture wrecked and ruined

everything.

  And now, for good luck's sake, let us on this third venture

abstain from words of ill omen. But, nevertheless, I advise you, his

friends, to imitate in Dion his love for his country and his temperate

habits of daily life, and to try with better auspices to carry out his

wishes-what these were, you have heard from me in plain words. And

whoever among you cannot live the simple Dorian life according to

the customs of your forefathers, but follows the manner of life of

Dion's murderers and of the Sicilians, do not invite this man to

join you, or expect him to do any loyal or salutary act; but invite

all others to the work of resettling all the States of Sicily and

establishing equality under the laws, summoning them from Sicily

itself and from the whole Peloponnese-and have no fear even of Athens;

for there, also, are men who excel all mankind in their devotion to

virtue and in hatred of the reckless acts of those who shed the

blood of friends.

  But if, after all, this is work for a future time, whereas immediate

action is called for by the disorders of all sorts and kinds which

arise every day from your state of civil strife, every man to whom

Providence has given even a moderate share of right intelligence ought

to know that in times of civil strife there is no respite from trouble

till the victors make an end of feeding their grudge by combats and

banishments and executions, and of wreaking their vengeance on their

enemies. They should master themselves and, enacting impartial laws,

framed not to gratify themselves more than the conquered party, should

compel men to obey these by two restraining forces, respect and

fear; fear, because they are the masters and can display superior

force; respect, because they rise superior to pleasures and are

willing and able to be servants to the laws. There is no other way

save this for terminating the troubles of a city that is in a state of

civil strife; but a constant continuance of internal disorders,

struggles, hatred and mutual distrust is the common lot of cities

which are in that plight.

  Therefore, those who have for the time being gained the upper

hand, when they desire to secure their position, must by their own act

and choice select from all Hellas men whom they have ascertained to be

the best for the purpose. These must in the first place be men of

mature years, who have children and wives at home, and, as far as

possible, a long line of ancestors of good repute, and all must be

possessed of sufficient property. For a city of ten thousand

householders their numbers should be fifty; that is enough. These they

must induce to come from their own homes by entreaties and the promise

of the highest honours; and having induced them to come they must

entreat and command them to draw up laws after binding themselves by

oath to show no partiality either to conquerors or to conquered, but

to give equal and common rights to the whole State.

  When laws have been enacted, what everything then hinges on is this.

If the conquerors show more obedience to the laws than the

conquered, the whole State will be full of security and happiness, and

there will be an escape from all your troubles. But if they do not,

then do not summon me or any other helper to aid you against those who

do not obey the counsel I now give you. For this course is akin to

that which Dion and I attempted to carry out with our hearts set on

the welfare of Syracuse. It is indeed a second best course. The

first and best was that scheme of welfare to all mankind which we

attempted to carry out with the co-operation of Dionysios; but some

chance, mightier than men, brought it to nothing. Do you now, with

good fortune attending you and with Heaven's help, try to bring your

efforts to a happier issue.

  Let this be the end of my advice and injunction and of the narrative

of my first visit to Dionysios. Whoever wishes may next hear of my

second journey and voyage, and learn that it was a reasonable and

suitable proceeding. My first period of residence in Sicily was

occupied in the way which I related before giving my advice to the

relatives and friends of Dion. After those events I persuaded

Dionysios by such arguments as I could to let me go; and we made an

agreement as to what should be done when peace was made; for at that

time there was a state of war in Sicily. Dionysios said that, when

he had put the affairs of his empire in a position of greater safety

for himself, he would send for Dion and me again; and he desired

that Dion should regard what had befallen him not as an exile, but

as a change of residence. I agreed to come again on these conditions.

  When peace had been made, he began sending for me; he requested that

Dion should wait for another year, but begged that I should by all

means come. Dion now kept urging and entreating me to go. For

persistent rumours came from Sicily that Dionysios was now once more

possessed by an extraordinary desire for philosophy. For this reason

Dion pressed me urgently not to decline his invitation. But though I

was well aware that as regards philosophy such symptoms were not

uncommon in young men, still it seemed to me safer at that time to

part company altogether with Dion and Dionysios; and I offended both

of them by replying that I was an old man, and that the steps now

being taken were quite at variance with the previous agreement.

  After this, it seems, Archytes came to the court of Dionysios.

Before my departure I had brought him and his Tarentine circle into

friendly relations with Dionysios. There were some others in

Syracuse who had received some instruction from Dion, and others had

learnt from these, getting their heads full of erroneous teaching on

philosophical questions. These, it seems, were attempting to hold

discussions with Dionysios on questions connected with such

subjects, in the idea that he had been fully instructed in my views.

Now is not at all devoid of natural gifts for learning, and he has a

great craving for honour and glory. What was said probably pleased

him, and he felt some shame when it became clear that he had not taken

advantage of my teaching during my visit. For these reasons he

conceived a desire for more definite instruction, and his love of

glory was an additional incentive to him. The real reasons why he

had learnt nothing during my previous visit have just been set forth

in the preceding narrative. Accordingly, now that I was safe at home

and had refused his second invitation, as I just now related,

Dionysios seems to have felt all manner of anxiety lest certain people

should suppose that I was unwilling to visit him again because I had

formed a poor opinion of his natural gifts and character, and because,

knowing as I did his manner of life, I disapproved of it.

  It is right for me to speak the truth, and make no complaint if

anyone, after hearing the facts, forms a poor opinion of my

philosophy, and thinks that the tyrant was in the right. Dionysios now

invited me for the third time, sending a trireme to ensure me

comfort on the voyage; he sent also Archedemos-one of those who had

spent some time with Archytes, and of whom he supposed that I had a

higher opinion than of any of the Sicilian Greeks-and, with him, other

men of repute in Sicily. These all brought the same report, that

Dionysios had made progress in philosophy. He also sent a very long

letter, knowing as he did my relations with Dion and Dion's

eagerness also that I should take ship and go to Syracuse. The

letter was framed in its opening sentences to meet all these

conditions, and the tenor of it was as follows: "Dionysios to

Plato," here followed the customary greeting and immediately after

it he said, "If in compliance with our request you come now, in the

first place, Dion's affairs will be dealt with in whatever way you

yourself desire; I know that you will desire what is reasonable, and I

shall consent to it. But if not, none of Dion's affairs will have

results in accordance with your wishes, with regard either to Dion

himself or to other matters." This he said in these words; the rest it

would be tedious and inopportune to quote. Other letters arrived

from Archytes and the Tarentines, praising the philosophical studies

of Dionysios and saying that, if I did not now come, I should cause

a complete rupture in their friendship with Dionysios, which had

been brought about by me and was of no small importance to their

political interests.

  When this invitation came to me at that time in such terms, and

those who had come from Sicily and Italy were trying to drag me

thither, while my friends at Athens were literally pushing me out with

their urgent entreaties, it was the same old tale-that I must not

betray Dion and my Tarentine friends and supporters. Also I myself had

a lurking feeling that there was nothing surprising in the fact that a

young man, quick to learn, hearing talk of the great truths of

philosophy, should feel a craving for the higher life. I thought

therefore that I must put the matter definitely to the test to see

whether his desire was genuine or the reverse, and on no account leave

such an impulse unaided nor make myself responsible for such a deep

and real disgrace, if the reports brought by anyone were really

true. So blindfolding myself with this reflection, I set out, with

many fears and with no very favourable anticipations, as was natural

enough. However, I went, and my action on this occasion at any rate

was really a case of "the third to the Preserver," for I had the

good fortune to return safely; and for this I must, next to the God,

thank Dionysios, because, though many wished to make an end of me,

he prevented them and paid some proper respect to my situation.

  On my arrival, I thought that first I must put to the test the

question whether Dionysios had really been kindled with the fire of

philosophy, or whether all the reports which had come to Athens were

empty rumours. Now there is a way of putting such things to the test

which is not to be despised and is well suited to monarchs, especially

to those who have got their heads full of erroneous teaching, which

immediately my arrival I found to be very much the case with

Dionysios. One should show such men what philosophy is in all its

extent; what their range of studies is by which it is approached,

and how much labour it involves. For the man who has heard this, if he

has the true philosophic spirit and that godlike temperament which

makes him a kin to philosophy and worthy of it, thinks that he has

been told of a marvellous road lying before him, that he must

forthwith press on with all his strength, and that life is not worth

living if he does anything else. After this he uses to the full his

own powers and those of his guide in the path, and relaxes not his

efforts, till he has either reached the end of the whole course of

study or gained such power that he is not incapable of directing his

steps without the aid of a guide. This is the spirit and these are the

thoughts by which such a man guides his life, carrying out his work,

whatever his occupation may be, but throughout it all ever cleaving to

philosophy and to such rules of diet in his daily life as will give

him inward sobriety and therewith quickness in learning, a good

memory, and reasoning power; the kind of life which is opposed to this

he consistently hates. Those who have not the true philosophic temper,

but a mere surface colouring of opinions penetrating, like sunburn,

only skin deep, when they see how great the range of studies is, how

much labour is involved in it, and how necessary to the pursuit it

is to have an orderly regulation of the daily life, come to the

conclusion that the thing is difficult and impossible for them, and

are actually incapable of carrying out the course of study; while some

of them persuade themselves that they have sufficiently studied the

whole matter and have no need of any further effort. This is the

sure test and is the safest one to apply to those who live in luxury

and are incapable of continuous effort; it ensures that such a man

shall not throw the blame upon his teacher but on himself, because

he cannot bring to the pursuit all the qualities necessary to it. Thus

it came about that I said to Dionysios what I did say on that

occasion.

  I did not, however, give a complete exposition, nor did Dionysios

ask for one. For he professed to know many, and those the most

important, points, and to have a sufficient hold of them through

instruction given by others. I hear also that he has since written

about what he heard from me, composing what professes to be his own

handbook, very different, so he says, from the doctrines which he

heard from me; but of its contents I know nothing; I know indeed

that others have written on the same subjects; but who they are, is

more than they know themselves. Thus much at least, I can say about

all writers, past or future, who say they know the things to which I

devote myself, whether by hearing the teaching of me or of others,

or by their own discoveries-that according to my view it is not

possible for them to have any real skill in the matter. There

neither is nor ever will be a treatise of mine on the subject. For

it does not admit of exposition like other branches of knowledge;

but after much converse about the matter itself and a life lived

together, suddenly a light, as it were, is kindled in one soul by a

flame that leaps to it from another, and thereafter sustains itself.

Yet this much I know-that if the things were written or put into

words, it would be done best by me, and that, if they were written

badly, I should be the person most pained. Again, if they had appeared

to me to admit adequately of writing and exposition, what task in life

could I have performed nobler than this, to write what is of great

service to mankind and to bring the nature of things into the light

for all to see? But I do not think it a good thing for men that

there should be a disquisition, as it is called, on this

topic-except for some few, who are able with a little teaching to find

it out for themselves. As for the rest, it would fill some of them

quite illogically with a mistaken feeling of contempt, and others with

lofty and vain-glorious expectations, as though they had learnt

something high and mighty.

  On this point I intend to speak a little more at length; for

perhaps, when I have done so, things will be clearer with regard to my

present subject. There is an argument which holds good against the man

ventures to put anything whatever into writing on questions of this

nature; it has often before been stated by me, and it seems suitable

to the present occasion.

  For everything that exists there are three instruments by which

the knowledge of it is necessarily imparted; fourth, there is the

knowledge itself, and, as fifth, we must count the thing itself

which is known and truly exists. The first is the name, the, second

the definition, the third. the image, and the fourth the knowledge. If

you wish to learn what I mean, take these in the case of one instance,

and so understand them in the case of all. A circle is a thing

spoken of, and its name is that very word which we have just

uttered. The second thing belonging to it is its definition, made up

names and verbal forms. For that which has the name "round,"

"annular," or, "circle," might be defined as that which has the

distance from its circumference to its centre everywhere equal. Third,

comes that which is drawn and rubbed out again, or turned on a lathe

and broken up-none of which things can happen to the circle

itself-to which the other things, mentioned have reference; for it

is something of a different order from them. Fourth, comes

knowledge, intelligence and right opinion about these things. Under

this one head we must group everything which has its existence, not in

words nor in bodily shapes, but in souls-from which it is dear that it

is something different from the nature of the circle itself and from

the three things mentioned before. Of these things intelligence

comes closest in kinship and likeness to the fifth, and the others are

farther distant.

  The same applies to straight as well as to circular form, to

colours, to the good, the, beautiful, the just, to all bodies

whether manufactured or coming into being in the course of nature,

to fire, water, and all such things, to every living being, to

character in souls, and to all things done and suffered. For in the

case of all these, no one, if he has not some how or other got hold of

the four things first mentioned, can ever be completely a partaker

of knowledge of the fifth. Further, on account of the weakness of

language, these (i.e., the four) attempt to show what each thing is

like, not less than what each thing is. For this reason no man of

intelligence will venture to express his philosophical views in

language, especially not in language that is unchangeable, which is

true of that which is set down in written characters.

  Again you must learn the point which comes next. Every circle, of

those which are by the act of man drawn or even turned on a lathe,

is full of that which is opposite to the fifth thing. For everywhere

it has contact with the straight. But the circle itself, we say, has

nothing in either smaller or greater, of that which is its opposite.

We say also that the name is not a thing of permanence for any of

them, and that nothing prevents the things now called round from being

called straight, and the straight things round; for those who make

changes and call things by opposite names, nothing will be less

permanent (than a name). Again with regard to the definition, if it is

made up of names and verbal forms, the same remark holds that there is

no sufficiently durable permanence in it. And there is no end to the

instances of the ambiguity from which each of the four suffers; but

the greatest of them is that which we mentioned a little earlier,

that, whereas there are two things, that which has real being, and

that which is only a quality, when the soul is seeking to know, not

the quality, but the essence, each of the four, presenting to the soul

by word and in act that which it is not seeking (i.e., the quality), a

thing open to refutation by the senses, being merely the thing

presented to the soul in each particular case whether by statement

or the act of showing, fills, one may say, every man with puzzlement

and perplexity.

  Now in subjects in which, by reason of our defective education, we

have not been accustomed even to search for the truth, but are

satisfied with whatever images are presented to us, we are not held up

to ridicule by one another, the questioned by questioners, who can

pull to pieces and criticise the four things. But in subjects where we

try to compel a man to give a clear answer about the fifth, any one of

those who are capable of overthrowing an antagonist gets the better of

us, and makes the man, who gives an exposition in speech or writing or

in replies to questions, appear to most of his hearers to know nothing

of the things on which he is attempting to write or speak; for they

are sometimes not aware that it is not the mind of the writer or

speaker which is proved to be at fault, but the defective nature of

each of the four instruments. The process however of dealing with

all of these, as the mind moves up and down to each in turn, does

after much effort give birth in a well-constituted mind to knowledge

of that which is well constituted. But if a man is ill-constituted

by nature (as the state of the soul is naturally in the majority

both in its capacity for learning and in what is called moral

character)-or it may have become so by deterioration-not even

Lynceus could endow such men with the power of sight.

  In one word, the man who has no natural kinship with this matter

cannot be made akin to it by quickness of learning or memory; for it

cannot be engendered at all in natures which are foreign to it.

Therefore, if men are not by nature kinship allied to justice and

all other things that are honourable, though they may be good at

learning and remembering other knowledge of various kinds-or if they

have the kinship but are slow learners and have no memory-none of

all these will ever learn to the full the truth about virtue and vice.

For both must be learnt together; and together also must be learnt, by

complete and long continued study, as I said at the beginning, the

true and the false about all that has real being. After much effort,

as names, definitions, sights, and other data of sense, are brought

into contact and friction one with another, in the course of

scrutiny and kindly testing by men who proceed by question and

answer without ill will, with a sudden flash there shines forth

understanding about every problem, and an intelligence whose efforts

reach the furthest limits of human powers. Therefore every man of

worth, when dealing with matters of worth, will be far from exposing

them to ill feeling and misunderstanding among men by committing

them to writing. In one word, then, it may be known from this that, if

one sees written treatises composed by anyone, either the laws of a

lawgiver, or in any other form whatever, these are not for that man

the things of most worth, if he is a man of worth, but that his

treasures are laid up in the fairest spot that he possesses. But if

these things were worked at by him as things of real worth, and

committed to writing, then surely, not gods, but men "have

themselves bereft him of his wits."

  Anyone who has followed this discourse and digression will know well

that, if Dionysios or anyone else, great or small, has written a

treatise on the highest matters and the first principles of things, he

has, so I say, neither heard nor learnt any sound teaching about the

subject of his treatise; otherwise, he would have had the same

reverence for it, which I have, and would have shrunk from putting

it forth into a world of discord and uncomeliness. For he wrote it,

not as an aid to memory-since there is no risk of forgetting it, if

a man's soul has once laid hold of it; for it is expressed in the

shortest of statements-but if he wrote it at all, it was from a mean

craving for honour, either putting it forth as his own invention, or

to figure as a man possessed of culture, of which he was not worthy,

if his heart was set on the credit of possessing it. If then Dionysios

gained this culture from the one lesson which he had from me, we may

perhaps grant him the possession of it, though how he acquired

it-God wot, as the Theban says; for I gave him the teaching, which I

have described, on that one occasion and never again.

  The next point which requires to be made clear to anyone who

wishes to discover how things really happened, is the reason why it

came about that I did not continue my teaching in a second and third

lesson and yet oftener. Does Dionysios, after a single lesson, believe

himself to know the matter, and has he an adequate knowledge of it,

either as having discovered it for himself or learnt it before from

others, or does he believe my teaching to be worthless, or, thirdly,

to be beyond his range and too great for him, and himself to be really

unable to live as one who gives his mind to wisdom and virtue? For

if he thinks it worthless, he will have to contend with many who say

the opposite, and who would be held in far higher repute as judges

than Dionysios, if on the other hand, he thinks he has discovered or

learnt the things and that they are worth having as part of a

liberal education, how could he, unless he is an extraordinary person,

have so recklessly dishonoured the master who has led the way in these

subjects? How he dishonoured him, I will now state.

  Up to this time he had allowed Dion to remain in possession of his

property and to receive the income from it. But not long after the

foregoing events, as if he had entirely forgotten his letter to that

effect, he no longer allowed Dion's trustees to send him remittances

to the Peloponnese, on the pretence that the owner of the property was

not Dion but Dion's son, his own nephew, of whom he himself was

legally the trustee. These were the actual facts which occurred up

to the point which we have reached. They had opened my eyes as to

the value of Dionysios' desire for philosophy, and I had every right

to complain, whether I wished to do so or not. Now by this time it was

summer and the season for sea voyages; therefore I decided that I must

not be vexed with Dionysios rather than with myself and those who

had forced me to come for the third time into the strait of Scylla,



               that once again I might

         To fell Charybdis measure back my course,



but must tell Dionysios that it was impossible for me to remain

after this outrage had been put upon Dion. He tried to soothe me and

begged me to remain, not thinking it desirable for himself that I

should arrive post haste in person as the bearer of such tidings. When

his entreaties produced no effect, he promised that he himself would

provide me with transport. For my intention was to embark on one of

the trading ships and sail away, being indignant and thinking it my

duty to face all dangers, in case I was prevented from going-since

plainly and obviously I was doing no wrong, but was the party wronged.

  Seeing me not at all inclined to stay, he devised the following

scheme to make me stay during that sading season. On the next day he

came to me and made a plausible proposal: "Let us put an end," he

said, "to these constant quarrels between you and me about Dion and

his affairs. For your sake I will do this for Dion. I require him to

take his own property and reside in the Peloponnese, not as an

exile, but on the understanding that it is open for him to migrate

here, when this step has the joint approval of himself, me, and you

his friends; and this shall be open to him on the understanding that

he does not plot against me. You and your friends and Dion's friends

here must be sureties for him in this, and he must give you

security. Let the funds which he receives be deposited in the

Peloponnese and at Athens, with persons approved by you, and let

Dion enjoy the income from them but have no power to take them out

of deposit without the approval of you and your friends. For I have no

great confidence in him, that, if he has this property at his

disposal, he will act justly towards me, for it will be no small

amount; but I have more confidence in you and your friends. See if

this satisfies you; and on these conditions remain for the present

year, and at the next season you shall depart taking the property with

you. I am quite sure that Dion will be grateful to you, if you

accomplish so much on his behalf."

  When I heard this proposal I was vexed, but after reflection said

I would let him know my view of it on the following day. We agreed

to that effect for the moment, and afterwards when I was by myself I

pondered the matter in much distress. The first reflection that came

up, leading the way in my self-communing, was this: "Come suppose that

Dionysios intends to do none of the things which he has mentioned, but

that, after my departure, he writes a plausible letter to Dion, and

orders several of his creatures to write to the same effect, telling

him of the proposal which he has now made to me, making out that he

was willing to do what he proposed, but that I refused and

completely neglected Dion's interests. Further, suppose that he is not

willing to allow my departure, and without giving personal orders to

any of the merchants, makes it clear, as he easily can, to all that he

not wish me to sail, will anyone consent to take me as a passenger,

when I leave the house: of Dionysios?"

  For in addition to my other troubles, I was lodging at that time

in the garden which surround his house, from which even the gatekeeper

would have refused to let me go, unless an order had been sent to

him from Dionysios. "Suppose however that I wait for the year, I shall

be able to write word of these things to Dion, stating the position in

which I am, and the steps which I am trying to take. And if

Dionysios does any of the things which he says, I shall have

accomplished something that is not altogether to be sneered at; for

Dion's property is, at a fair estimate, perhaps not less than a

hundred talents. If however the prospect which I see looming in the

future takes the course which may reasonably be expected, I know not

what I shall do with myself. Still it is perhaps necessary to go on

working for a year, and to attempt to prove by actual fact the

machinations of Dionysios."

  Having come to this decision, on the following day I said to

Dionysios, "I have decided to remain. But," I continued, "I must ask

that you will not regard me as empowered to act for Dion, but will

along with me write a letter to him, stating what has now been

decided, and enquire whether this course satisfies him. If it does

not, and if he has other wishes and demands, he must write particulars

of them as soon as possible, and you must not as yet take any hasty

step with regard to his interests."

  This was what was said and this was the agreement which was made,

almost in these words. Well, after this the trading-ships took their

departure, and it was no longer possible for me to take mine, when

Dionysios, if you please, addressed me with the remark that half the

property must be regarded as belonging to Dion and half to his son.

Therefore, he said, he would sell it, and when it was sold would

give half to me to take away, and would leave half on the spot for the

son. This course, he said, was the most just. This proposal was a blow

to me, and I thought it absurd to argue any longer with him;

however, I said that we must wait for Dion's letter, and then once

more write to tell him of this new proposal. His next step was the

brilliant one of selling the whole of Dion's property, using his own

discretion with regard to the manner and terms of the sale and of

the purchasers. He spoke not a word to me about the matter from

beginning to end, and I followed his example and never talked to him

again about Dion's affairs; for I did not think that I could do any

good by doing so. This is the history so far of my efforts to come

to the rescue of philosophy and of my friends.

  After this Dionysios and I went on with our daily life, I with my

eyes turned abroad like a bird yearning to fly from its perch, and

he always devising some new way of scaring me back and of keeping a

tight hold on Dion's property. However, we gave out to all Sicily that

we were friends. Dionysios, now deserting the policy of his father,

attempted to lower the pay of the older members of his body guard. The

soldiers were furious, and, assembling in great numbers, declared that

they would not submit. He attempted to use force to them, shutting the

gates of the acropolis; but they charged straight for the walls,

yelling out an unintelligible and ferocious war cry. Dionysios took

fright and conceded all their demands and more to the peltasts then

assembled.

  A rumour soon spread that Heracleides had been the cause of all

the trouble. Hearing this, Heracleides kept out of the way.

Dionysios was trying to get hold of him, and being unable to do so,

sent for Theodotes to come to him in his garden. It happened that I

was walking in the garden at the same time. I neither know nor did I

hear the rest of what passed between them, but what Theodotes said

to Dionysios in my presence I know and remember. "Plato," he said,

"I am trying to convince our friend Dionysios that, if I am able to

bring Heracleides before us to defend himself on the charges which

have been made against him, and if he decides that Heracleides must no

longer live in Sicily, he should be allowed (this is my point) to take

his son and wife and sail to the Peloponnese and reside there,

taking no action there against Dionysios and enjoying the income of

his property. I have already sent for him and will send for him again;

and if he comes in obedience either to my former message or to this

one-well and good. But I beg and entreat Dionysios that, if anyone

finds Heracleides either in the country or here, no harm shall come to

him, but that he may retire from the country till Dionysios comes to

some other decision. Do you agree to this?" he added, addressing

Dionysios. "I agree," he replied, "that even if he is found at your

house, no harm shall be done to him beyond what has now been said."

  On the following day Eurybios and Theodotes came to me in the

evening, both greatly disturbed. Theodotes said, "Plato, you were

present yesterday during the promises made by Dionysios to me and to

you about Heracleides?" "Certainly," I replied. "Well," he

continued, "at this moment peltasts are scouring the country seeking

to arrest Heracleides; and he must be somewhere in this neighbourhood.

For Heaven's sake come with us to Dionysios." So we went and stood

in the presence of Dionysios; and those two stood shedding silent

tears, while I said: "These men are afraid that you may take strong

measures with regard to Heracleides contrary to what was agreed

yesterday. For it seems that he has returned and has been seen

somewhere about here." On hearing this he blazed up and turned all

colours, as a man would in a rage. Theodotes, falling before him in

tears, took his hand and entreated him to do nothing of the sort.

But I broke in and tried to encourage him, saying: "Be of good

cheer, Theodotes; Dionysios will not have the heart to take any

fresh step contrary to his promises of yesterday." Fixing his eye on

me, and assuming his most autocratic air he said, "To you I promised

nothing small or great." "By the gods," I said, "you did promise

that forbearance for which our friend here now appeals." With these

words I turned away and went out. After this he continued the hunt for

Heracleides, and Theodotes, sending messages, urged Heracleides to

take flight. Dionysios sent out Teisias and some peltasts with

orders to pursue him. But Heracleides, as it was said, was just in

time, by a small fraction of a day, in making his escape into

Carthaginian territory.

  After this Dionysios thought that his long cherished scheme not to

restore Dion's property would give him a plausible excuse for

hostility towards me; and first of all he sent me out of the

acropolis, finding a pretext that the women were obliged to hold a

sacrificial service for ten days in the garden in which I had my

lodging. He therefore ordered me to stay outside in the house of

Archedemos during this period. While I was there, Theodotes sent for

me and made a great outpouring of indignation at these occurrences,

throwing the blame on Dionysios. Hearing that I had been to see

Theodotes he regarded this, as another excuse, sister to the

previous one, for quarrelling with me. Sending a messenger he enquired

if I had really been conferring with Theodotes on his invitation

"Certainly," I replied, "Well," continued the messenger, "he ordered

me to tell you that you are not acting at all well in preferring

always Dion and Dion's friends to him." And he did not send for me

to return to his house, as though it were now clear that Theodotes and

Heracleides were my friends, and he my enemy. He also thought that I

had no kind feelings towards him because the property of Dion was

now entirely done for.

  After this I resided outside the acropolis among the mercenaries.

Various people then came to me, among them those of the ships' crews

who came from Athens, my own fellow citizens, and reported that I

was evil spoken of among the peltasts, and that some of them were

threatening to make an end of me, if they could ket hold of me

Accordingly I devised the following plan for my safety.

  I sent to Archytes and my other friends in Taras, telling them the

plight I was in. Finding some excuse for an embassy from their city,

they sent a thirty-oared galley with Lamiscos, one of themselves,

who came and entreated Dionysios about me, saying that I wanted to go,

and that he should on no account stand in my way. He consented and

allowed me to go, giving me money for the journey. But for Dion's

property I made no further request, nor was any of it restored.

  I made my way to the Peloponnese to Olympia, where I found Dion a

spectator at the Games, and told him what had occurred. Calling Zeus

to be his witness, he at once urged me with my relatives and friends

to make preparations for taking vengeance on Dionysios-our ground

for action being the breach of faith to a guest-so he put it and

regarded it, while his own was his unjust expulsion and banishment.

Hearing this, I told him that he might call my friends to his aid,

if they wished to go; "But for myself," I continued, "you and others

in a way forced me to be the sharer of Dionysios' table and hearth and

his associate in the acts of religion. He probably believed the

current slanders, that I was plotting with you against him and his

despotic rule; yet feelings of scruple prevailed with him, and he

spared my life. Again, I am hardly of the age for being comrade in

arms to anyone; also I stand as a neutral between you, if ever you

desire friendship and wish to benefit one another; so long as you

aim at injuring one another, call others to your aid." This I said,

because I was disgusted with my misguided journeyings to Sicily and my

ill-fortune there. But they disobeyed me and would not listen to my

attempts at reconciliation, and so brought on their own heads all

the evils which have since taken place. For if Dionysios had

restored to Dion his property or been reconciled with him on any

terms, none of these things would have happened, so far as human

foresight can foretell. Dion would have easily been kept in check by

my wishes and influence. But now, rushing upon one another, they

have caused universal disaster.

  Dion's aspiration however was the same that I should say my own or

that of any other right-minded man ought to be. With regard to his own

power, his friends and his country the ideal of such a man would be to

win the greatest power and honour by rendering the greatest

services. And this end is not attained if a man gets riches for

himself, his supporters and his country, by forming plots and

getting together conspirators, being all the while a poor creature,

not master of himself, overcome by the cowardice which fears to

fight against pleasures; nor is it attained if he goes on to kill

the men of substance, whom he speaks of as the enemy, and to plunder

their possessions, and invites his confederates and supporters to do

the same, with the object that no one shall say that it is his

fault, if he complains of being poor. The same is true if anyone

renders services of this kind to the State and receives honours from

her for distributing by decrees the property of the few among the

many-or if, being in charge the affairs of a great State which rules

over many small ones, he unjustly appropriates to his own State the

possessions of the small ones. For neither a Dion nor any other man

will, with his eyes open, make his way by steps like these to a

power which will be fraught with destruction to himself and his

descendants for all time; but he will advance towards constitutional

government and the framing of the justest and best laws, reaching

these ends without executions and murders even on the smallest scale.

  This course Dion actually followed, thinking it preferable to suffer

iniquitous deeds rather than to do them; but, while taking precautions

against them, he nevertheless, when he had reached the climax of

victory over his enemies, took a false step and fell, a catastrophe

not at all surprising. For a man of piety, temperance and wisdom, when

dealing with the impious, would not be entirely blind to the character

of such men, but it would perhaps not be surprising if he suffered the

catastrophe that might befall a good ship's captain, who would not

be entirely unaware of the approach of a storm, but might be unaware

of its extraordinary and startling violence, and might therefore be

overwhelmed by its force. The same thing caused Dion's downfall. For

he was not unaware that his assailants were thoroughly bad men, but he

was unaware how high a pitch of infatuation and of general

wickedness and greed they had reached. This was the cause of his

downfall, which has involved Sicily in countless sorrows.

  As to the steps which should be taken after the events which I

have now related, my advice has been given pretty fully and may be

regarded as finished; and if you ask my reasons for recounting the

story of my second journey to Sicily, it seemed to me essential that

an account of it must be given because of the strange and

paradoxical character of the incidents. If in this present account

of them they appear to anyone more intelligible, and seem to anyone to

show sufficient grounds in view of the circumstances, the present

statement is adequate and not too lengthy.





                            -THE END-

.